Educational advances essays

Educational advances essays Tax supported primary schools were scarce in the early years of the Republic. Aristocrats felt that it was not there concern to educate the lower class. 1. They felt that their children would grow up with "brats." 2. They were afraid that poor children would be armed with votes. Tax-supported public education triumphed between 1825-1850. 1. Laborers demanded instruction for their children. 2. Rising manhood suffrage aided the tax-supported public education. The average schoolhouse was one room, one stove, one teacher, and eight grades. The schools stayed open only a few months of the year. Most school teachers were men who were ill tempered and ill paid. They commonly practiced physical abuse. Horace Mann-a brilliant graduate of Brown University, a Secretary of the Massachusetts board of Education. He campaigned for better schoolhouses longer school terms and higher pay for teachers. 1. His influence moved into other states Education was still expressive and considered a luxury. In 1860, the nation counted 100 high schools, and 1,000,000 illiterate white adults. Black slaves in the south were forbidden to learn reading and writing. Noah Webster improved textbooks (readers), the books also promoted patriotism. Noah Webster was the schoolmaster of the republic. William H. McGuffey- He published grade school readers in the 1830's. He books were knows as "McGuffy's Readers." The Second Great Awakening led to the development of small Liberal Arts colleges in the South and West. 1. The did not provide a good education 2. They were for show, and to make America look better. The first state supported university began in the south, Nort ...

Reasons Why Teens Choose to Have an Abortion

Reasons Why Teens Choose to Have an Abortion Teens facing an unplanned pregnancy choose abortion for similar reasons as women in their twenties and thirties. Teens ask the same questions: Do I want this baby? Can I afford to raise a child? How will this impact my life? Am I ready to be a mother? Coming to a Decision A teen considering abortion is influenced by where she lives, her religious beliefs, her relationship with her parents, access to family planning services, and the behavior of her peer group. Her educational level and socioeconomic status also play a role. According to the Guttmacher Institute, the reasons teens most often give for having an abortion are: Not wanting their lives changed by the birth of a babyNot being able to afford a babyNot feeling mature or responsible enough to raise a child Parental Involvement Whether or not a teen opts for abortion often hinges on a parents knowledge and/or participation in the decision-making. Thirty-four states require some form of parental permission or notification for a minor to obtain an abortion. For teens whose parents are unaware that their daughter is sexually active, this is an additional obstacle that makes a difficult decision even more stressful. The majority of teen abortions involve a parent in some way. 60% of minors who have abortions do so with the knowledge of at least one parent, and a large majority of parents support their daughters choice. Continuing Education...or Not The teen who worries that having a baby will change her life has a good reason for concern. Most teen mothers lives are negatively impacted by the birth of a baby; their educational plans are interrupted, which subsequently limits their future earning potential and puts them at greater risk of raising their child in poverty. In comparison, teens who choose abortion are more successful in school and are more likely to graduate and pursue higher education. They typically come from a higher socioeconomic family background than those who give birth and become teen mothers. Even when socioeconomic factors are taken into consideration, pregnant teens are at a huge educational disadvantage. Teen mothers are significantly less likely to complete high school than their peers; only 40% of young women who give birth before age 18 earn a high school diploma as compared to other young women from similar socioeconomic situations who delay childbearing until age 20 or 21. In the long run, the prospects are even grimmer. Less than 2% of teen mothers who give birth before age 18 go on to earn a college degree by the time they turn 30. Access to Abortion Providers Choice is not a choice when theres little or no access to abortion. For many teens in the U.S., obtaining an abortion involves driving out of town and even sometimes out of state. Limited access shuts the door on abortion for those without transportation or resources. According to the Guttmacher Institute, in 2014 90% of counties in the United States had no abortion provider. Estimates of women who obtained abortions in 2005 indicate that 25% traveled at least 50 miles, and 8% traveled more than 100 miles. Eight states were served by fewer than five abortion providers. North Dakota has only one abortion provider. Even when physical access is not an issue, the parental consent/parental notification laws which exist in 34 states in effect limit access for an underage teen unwilling to discuss the decision with a parent. Teen Pregnancy Before Legalized Abortion The fear and hesitancy teens express at the thought of discussing pregnancy with their parents is deeply rooted in our culture. Past generations regarded teen pregnancy as something deeply shameful. Prior to the legalization of abortion, a pregnant girl or young woman was often sent by her family to a home for unwed mothers, a practice that began in the early 20th century and remained until the 1970s. To maintain the secret, friends, and acquaintances were told that the girl in question was staying with a relative. Teens who were afraid to tell their parents they were pregnant often grew desperate to end their pregnancies. Some attempted self-induced abortions with herbs or toxic substances or sharp implements; others sought out illegal back alley abortionists who were rarely medical professionals. Many girls and young women died as a result of these unsafe abortion methods. Lingering Shame With the legalization of abortion with the Roe v. Wade decision in 1972, safe and legal medical means became available to most of the population, and the procedure could be done discreetly and quietly. Although the shame of teen pregnancy lingered, abortion was a way for a teen or young woman to hide her sexual activity and pregnancy from her parents. High school-aged girls who kept their babies were the subject of gossip and pity among students and parents. Media Depictions of Teen Pregnancy and Abortion Today, those views seem strange and outdated to the many teens who choose to become teen mothers. Mainstream media has come a long way in normalizing the idea of teen pregnancy. Films such as Juno and TV series such as The Secret Life of an American Teen feature pregnant teens as the heroines. Much rarer are depictions of teens choosing abortion- a taboo subject in the eyes of Hollywood. Because teen pregnancy has become almost commonplace in many high schools, the pressure to keep it a secret no longer exists as it did in past generations. More and more teens are choosing to give birth, and a type of reverse pressure now exists, with many teens believing that teen motherhood is a desirable situation. The very public pregnancies of famous teens such as Jamie Lynn Spears and Bristol Palin have added to the glamour of teen pregnancy. Thus for some teens, the decision to have an abortion may be a choice that is criticized by peers who only see the excitement of being pregnant and having a baby. Children of Teen Mothers Teens who choose abortion because they recognize their own immaturity and inability to care for a baby are making a responsible decision; it may not be one that everyone agrees with, but it also cuts short a cycle that is on the rise in the U.S. children giving birth to children. More and more studies indicate that children born to teen mothers begin school with significant disadvantages in learning, do poorer in school and on standardized tests, and are much more likely to drop out of school than the children of women whove delayed childbearing until they reach their twenties. Abortion remains a controversial topic, and a pregnant teen considering abortion often finds herself in the proverbial situation of being between a rock and a hard place. But when finances, life circumstances and rocky personal relationships prevent a teen mother from being able to raise her child in a loving, safe, and stable environment, terminating a pregnancy may be her only viable choice. Sources: In Brief: Facts on American Teens Sexual and Reproductive Health. Guttmacher.org, September 2006.Stanhope, Marcia and Jeanette Lancaster. Foundations of Nursing in the Community: Community-oriented Practice. Elsevier Health Sciences, 2006.Why It Matters: Teen Pregnancy and Education. The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, retrieved 19 May 2009.

Free Trade and its Benefits Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Free Trade and its Benefits - Essay Example e study of this subject very seriously. According to Lipsey,International Trade is a transaction and trade of goods and services between two individuals living in different countries,two companies operating in different countries and even two governments indulging in some form of trading activity.International trade becomes Free Trade when there are no taxes, quotas and tariffs are levied to these transactions. International trade becomes controlled trade when taxes and quotas are present in the trade activity involving two parties from different countries.There are certain advantages of Free Trade such as efficiency,improved standard of living and foreign earning.The disadvantages of Free Trade are plenty too.These include government revenue loss, deterioration for local industry and outflow of foreign reserves.It is widely believed that free trade leads to efficiency.This can be explained by a diagram,but we must keep in mind that opposite of free trade is one where the host govern ment charges either tariffs or quotas on imported goods. In the above diagram, it can be seen that free trade is more meritorious to a situation where either no international trade is taking place or where the trade is not free. At first there is no free trade. The market is work at a point where D=S or where demand is equated to supply. The equilibrium quantity of goods traded at this point is represented by â€Å"Y†. If the country decided to indulge in free trade then SW will become the supply curve and fewer goods will be traded in the market at point â€Å"Y1†. The reason why the quantity of goods traded in the market is reduced is because the imported goods are cheaper and local production of goods has reduced and the gap between Y-Y1 is filled by imported goods. This is a point of controversy and economists who are against Free Trade argue that free trade will lead to closure and downsizing of local businesses resulting in massive unemployment in the country. Un der these circumstances Free Trade looks like an evil and it looks a valid claim that imported goods should be stopped from penetrating the local markets. However, the supporters of Free Trade claim that it leads to better utilization of world’s scarce resources. They use the theories of absolute and comparative advantage to justify their claim and recommends that the country should divert from production of goods in which it does not have an absolute and comparative advantage to the good where these advantages can be exploited. However, many countries choose a different route and exploit the benefits of allocative efficiency. They charge some sort of taxes to imported goods or give subsidies to local industries to make sure that local production remains high and local industries are able to compete with the imported goods. This leads to partial improvement in local industries situation, but at the expense of efficiency. Hence, one can see that any trade that is taxed or rest ricted cannot yield same amount of efficiency as uncontrolled trade. Free Trade also renders certain other advantages too. It leads to an increase in choices that people can make. This is a necessary condition for improvement in living standard of people. Hence, Free Trade allows people to live a better life. Free Trade

Other than brutal conquest, what impact did the Mongol empire have on Essay

Other than brutal conquest, what impact did the Mongol empire have on the known world and why - Essay Example ined and the strongest armies and with a highly organizational and strategic mind of a leader, the Mongolians were able to succeed in their brutal conquest for expansion and increase in territory. Apart from achieving victory in stretching the empire through invasion and conquest, the Mongols also achieved great success in other things. One of the greatest impacts that is still evident up to this day is its effect on the human as well as the political geography of Asia. Because of the emergence of the Mongol Empire, the great collection of several Semi-Turkic and Mongolic tribes were unified under the reign and rule of the founder of the Mongol Empire, Genghis Kan. Moreover, the existence of the states that came out from the dust of the collapse of the Mongol Empire owed their existence to the Mongols. The large size of the Mongol Empire due to its great expansion and conquest from Asia reaching all the way to Eastern Europe has brought about and encouraged wider distribution and trading of a mixture of different goods and other products, and along with it also helped spread out and share knowledge and understanding of various topics and subject matter in several fields of astronomy, science, mathematics and also in other fields such as art, theatre and others. The founder and first leader of the Mongol Empire and known as one of the world’s greatest conquerors throughout history, Genghis Khan, brought the kingdom to become known throughout the world. Through him, the empire saw success and rose to power. Although Khan himself was illiterate, he ordered and introduced a writing system, which still kept on and remained in modern Mongolia up until the twentieth century. Furthermore, Genghis Khan also brought in the thought and initiative of religious tolerance all over the empire. The fifth leader of the Mongol Empire and the grandson of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, continued to build on and develop the empire’s success. During his reign, he was also able to

The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World. Clash of Ignorance Essay Example for Free

The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World. Clash of Ignorance Essay This article by Edward Said is a follow up to an earlier article by Samuel Huntington titled â€Å"The Clash of Civilization† that was themed around civilization being a source of conflict in the modern world. The focus of Huntington’s article is the prediction of ideological differences between the different cultures say religions Christianity and Islam being a source of conflict in the world. Summary of the article This article â€Å"Clash of Ignorance† by Edward Said aims at faulting the earlier assumption in the â€Å"Clash of civilization† where it is only assumed that the major cultures say the West and Islamism are in conflict. The high level of ignorance in the theory and generalization of the West and Islam as cultures is the main thematic concern by Said in this article. The article faults the general ascribed ideology of the West versus the rest as in the cold war period to a now new modern ideology of Islamism versus the West. Critical Discussion Said makes an argument against some of the popular entities in global politics in modern day. The entities are Islamism and the â€Å"West†. Reference is made of Huntington’s article that foresaw the cause of conflict in future politics as being driven by the differences between nations and the different groups of civilization. The general assumption from this is the fact that conflicts will thus be cultural. In the â€Å"Clash of Ignorance† the author is against this classification of groups in conflict. Said is in contention of Huntington’s theory on the use of the 9/11 terrorist attack on America as an affirmation to the existence of the two sides in global conflict across the globe CITATION Sai01 l 1033 (Said, 2001). According to Said, the involvement of the terrorists in the 9/11 attacks was just a representation of a small fraction. This thus cannot be construed to be a representation of Islam’s across the world. This argument is strengthened by Said through his allusion to a stand by a practicing Muslim who contends that Islamic extremists are not by any form a representation of the religion in itself but people who are out to distort the face of the religion CITATION Sai01 l 1033 (Said, 2001). Said also argues against the idea that Muslims across the globe have an assumption of being a superior culture. This is indeed not a properly sampled and proved theory with empirical evidence of the billions of Muslims across the globe. The assertion by the Italian Prime Minister of Islam being adamant to being part of modernity is also wrong according to Said. This can be proved through the embracing of different â€Å"western† technologies and the use of the said technologies in the 9/11 attacks on America. Further evidence points at the embracing of western style clothing by some Muslims even the women. The above stated evidence by Said points to the heightened ignorance in factual evidence as regards to calls of existence of conflicts between Islam and the â€Å"West† CITATION Sai01 l 1033 (Said, 2001). In this article, Said makes numerous efforts as a result of lack of evidence to show the divide being asserted between the â€Å"West† and â€Å"Islam†. He points out the different societies across the world where both sides in this alleged divide live in harmony. The increased level of anti-Islamic perspectives s portrayed in the media in the â€Å"West† is enough evidence of the level of hate speech directed towards Muslims who stay in the â€Å"West†. Said contents that the genesis of such anti Islamism begun in Europe in the wake of the destruction of Roman Empire by the Arab conquest. This led to the destruction of Christian unity at that time and now the resentment against Muslims has now been reignited. Positive aspects of the past relationship between the two cultures have been overshadowed by this loathe towards Islam. For instance the west embraced science, sociology and philosophy of Islam yet now they seen to cast negative aspersions about the religion in general based on a few activities of terrorists in the name of religion CITATION Sai01 l 1033 (Said, 2001). In most parts of the article, Said revisits the similarities between the two sides of the alleged divide and accuses the West of having selective memory and double standards. This is based on some of the atrocities committed by the West that are similar to the September 11 attacks in the name of religion. Examples of such atrocities include the Branch Davidians and the supporters of Jim Jones the reverend. Said further attacks the use of powerful idioms in print media in the â€Å"West† since most of these articles do not appreciate the complicated histories between the two sides. He argues that this instead fuel the infatuation of being a Westerner CITATION Sai01 l 1033 (Said, 2001). Said insists on the fact that Islamic extremists misrepresent the religion. This thus can be seen as an effective way to deal with Huntington who uses terrorism to cement the rift between the â€Å"West â€Å"and â€Å"Islam†. The evidence by Said proves his claim of Muslim representation. His demonstration of the lack of distinction between the two sides and the successful integration of the two cultures in clothing, adoption of technology and co-existence in some societies show the lack of conflict between the two cultures. However, his subjective statements across the article taint his argument. His critic of Huntington’s book â€Å"The Root of Muslim Rage† was personal as he says Huntington did confuse himself by showing he is such a clumsy thinker. Generally, this article â€Å"The Clash of Ignorance† is quite a persuasive piece of work and convincing. It makes it easy to understand the complex nature of the theme â€Å"Islamism† and the â€Å"West† CITATION Kar12 l 1033 (Karim Eid, 2012). Conclusion From the analysis explored in this article, the different stakeholders must unite to fight the increasing divide between the two sides of the divide. A closer detailed look at the evidence linking terrorism and Islam raise more speculation about the connection between the two. Terrorism will continue to provide the terrorists a continuous stream of income to finance their activities. Terrorism should thus not be blamed on ideological conflict between the different cultures of the world. Said emphasis is on ignorance and lack of facts on Islam being the reason it is blamed for the increased level of radicalism hence global conflict CITATION Sai01 l 1033 (Said, 2001). References   Huntington, S. P. (2007). The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World. New York: Simon and Schuster. Karim, K. H., Eid, M. (2012). Clash of Ignorance. Global Media Journal Canadian Edition Volume 5, Issue 1, 7-27. Said, E. W. (2001, February 14). Clash of Ignorance. Retrieved from The Nation: www.thenation.com Source document

How does Betchman portray the weakness of English Middle Classes in Ess

How does Betchman portray the weakness of English Middle Classes in Westminster Abbey? In the poem 'In Westminster Abbey' the poet (John Betchman) speaks in from the view of a lady living in the English middle classes in the period, in which the Second World War took place. The poet has set the poem in the head of the heart of England's church, Westminster Abbey. The poet narrates to the reads the feelings of this lady and her feelings of the war, but what the poet does in mainly stereotype all women in the English middle classes at the time. In the following I shall talk about how poet portrays the weakness of the English middle classes. The poem starts of with the lady talking to god and continues through out with this lady talking to god. The poet sustains a continues rhythm through out with a regular four beats in each line, for example 'LET me TAKE this OTHER glove OFF' , this technique retains the readers interest in the poem since the this technique has been used consistently through out the poem. An additional technique that the poet has used is couplets this is another method that stays persistent through the poem, for example in the first stanza lines two and four; 'Let me take this other glove off As the vox Humana swells And the beauteous fields of Eden Bask beneath the Abbey bells.' This is another example of the poet trying to keep the reader attracted to the poem through out, and keep a persistent flow. As one reads the poem they expected to realize that that the lady has a selfish attitude, this is shown in many aspects of the poem one of which is shown in the second stanza; 'Gracious Lord, OH BOMB THE GERMANS, Spare their women for thy sake, If that is not too ea... ...mpire, this I think the poet also narrates this fact in the third stanza; 'Keep our Empire undismembered Guide our forces by Thy Hand,' Here the lady is asking God keep the Empire united and to guide them to victory. In conclusion the poet portrays a major weakness of the English middle classes in the poem 'In Westminster Abbey', although they were wealthy, well educated for the time's standards and considered as of a superior status than others. One is led to believe that they lacked the understanding and wisdom that people generally have today, also they were selfish and ironic which have learnt from lines like 'Don't let anyone bomb me' and 'If that is not too easy'. I have made these statements from the assumption that the reader is led to believe that this poem is a stereotype and a generalized view or opinion of the English middle classes.

Parent Student Letter re Exams Jan

New Horizons classes will resume on a regular schedule during the Hampton City Schools exam week. Students will therefore be excused from New Horizons classes when they have exams at Hampton High School, but the student needs to share that with the New Horizons teacher in advance. Students may attend New Horizons when they do not have exams at Hampton High School. Please avoid scheduling dental and medical appointments during the exam period.If illness or some other emergency arises, which prevents a student from being in attendance for a scheduled exam, parents/guardians must communicate with the appropriate teacher(s) to reschedule. If justification for missing an exam cannot be validated and/or no communication occurs between the parent and the school, the student shall be considered unexcused and will receive a â€Å"O† for the semester exam, regardless of the class average. The Attendance Office may be reached at 896-5882 for emergencies during the exam period.If a studen t arrives with an unexcused tardy to an exam period, he/she may have the remaining time to complete the exam, however additional time will not be provided. If a student arrives with an excused tardy, the teacher may offer additional time prior to the completion of the exam week so that the student has the full 2 hours as needed. Transportation will be the student's responsibility. Monday, Jan aura 26th, and Tuesday, January 27th, will be Teacher Workdays. Students will not report on either day.The second semester will begin on a RED Day on January 28th. All 1st block class locations will be posted on the walls. Students may have different courses, teachers or room locations. Students will receive complete 2nd semester schedules from their 1st block teachers. We hope this information helps you prepare for the culmination of the 1st semester of the 2014-2015 school year. We wish all of our students success on their exams. Sincerely, The Hampton High School Administrative Team

Review of Marketing Article

The article â€Å"Building Social Marketing into Your Program† by N.K. Weinreich provides overview of available techniques how to make social marketing key element of business. The author stresses the important of social marketing and social responsibility as everyone should realize the effects of own actions. Market research processes make social marketers fell exhausted and overwhelmed and, as a result, they may hesitate to pay proper attention to social marketing ignoring its importance. Often, social markets think that lack resources and work experience to undertake social project. N.K. Weinreich, the author of the article, identifies ten effective ways how to incorporate social marketing into business program. The author recommends talking to targeted customers, segmenting targeted audience, positioning the product, being aware of competition, following the audience, utilizing variety of approaches, using effective models, testing, building partnership with key allies, and, finally, seeing what it is possible to do the next time. Weinreich argues that evaluation is the key in social marketing and it is necessary to determine what is to be accomplished and how to improve the program. When developing any program it is required to refine and test products and messages with the targeted audience to avoid misunderstanding and misconception. After the program is implemented one should monitor activities to evaluate whether everything matches the plan. The key of social marketing is claimed to be talking as social marketing is customer-driven process. Importance for the Course I think that the current article is important to be referenced in course it is directly related with marketing study. The paper presents particular aspect of marketing – social marketing – and the author offers informative and well-structured analysis of how to build social marketing. Moreover, the paper is not simply theoretical as the author uses logical arguments and examples to defend her position that every modern business should consider the importance of social marketing as it gives an opportunity to retain and to attract customers, to improve reputation and to succeed in highly-competitive business worlds. Positives of the Article I agree that social marketing should be paid more attention as it promotes fair and honest customer-buyer relations. Social marketing teaches how to talk to customers, how to gain their popularity and attention. Moreover, social marketing aims at satisfying needs and wants of the targeted audience. Further, Weinrich says that information is power and I agree as information gives power to predict and to avoid risks and to develop ways of performance improvement. Negatives of the Article It is rather hard to identify moments I disagree with as the author provides in-depth overview of social marketing and its key elements. However, I think that more attention should be paid to discussing the benefits of social marketing in the introduction. The only thing I disagree is author’s recommendation to follow the audience. I think that successful social marketing should aim at offering services and products in such a way that they should attract customers and not vice verse. Questions 1. What are the main benefits of social marketing for business environment? 2. What are internal and external challenges of social marketing? 3. Why to incorporate social marketing into program? Future Impact Firstly, the article offers new ways of building social marketing programs. Secondly, the article underlines crucial importance of social marketing for business success. Thirdly, the article sets background for further researches in this and related fields. References Weinreich, N.K.(1995). Building Social Marketing into Your Program. Retrieved March 13, 2008                                    

Explanations For Crime.

Explanations For Crime. Free Online Research Papers There are several different explanations for crime and the reasons or motifs behind the actions of a criminal. However, in determining which school of thought; classicism, biological/psychological positivism and sociological positivism, provides the best explanation to crime, the above theories must be considered. In order to commit a crime, one must break a law set by a given government (Kohn, 2006). The classical theory or classicism emphasises the notion of individual rights, the importance of free will and the rule of law (White and Haines, 1996). It also suggests humans are essentially self-seeking and self interested, and hence will make their decisions simply by choice. Criminologists such as Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham were contributors to the classical theory (Maguire, Morgan, Reiner, 1997). The biological theories are loosely based on the scientific study of criminals and criminal behavior. The most prominent and influential biological criminologist was Cesare Lombrosso who argued that criminals are essentially born, not made. He based his concept heavily on the theories of evolution as he attempted to distinguish different types of individuals on the basis of racial and biological differences (Maguire, Morgan, Reiner, 1997). Closely linked with this theory is that of psychological positivism. Psychological positivism directs its argument to the mind of the crimin al and thus we encounter the notion of the ‘criminal mind’ (Burke, 2001). Within this theory there are three broad categories of psychological theories of crime. The first two categories are concerned with psychodynamic and behavioral learning theories, the third associated with cognitive learning theories. The likes of Sigmund Freud, Ivan P Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, Edward Tolman and Jean Piaget were all influential and prominent psychological criminologists of their time (Burke, 2001). The last theory, sociological positivism is arguably the most logical theory of the four, recognizing the social factors external to the human being, placing constraints on the given person’s choice of action. Circumstance and social pressure is taken into consideration when examining crime rather than placing reason on other factors such as biological/psychological positivism (Gibbons 1979). Prominent sociological criminologists include the work Emile Durkheim. This essay will discu ss the above criminological theories and determine which theory provides the best explanation to crime. The school of classicism or classical theory was introduced in the eighteenth century providing the first naturalistic explanation of crime (Moyer, 2001). The cruel punishments in medieval Europe were superseded by the newly implemented classical theory, which was heavily influenced by the eighteenth-century intellectual movement (Gibbons, 1979). The classical theory was the dominant perspective for around a century however; later fell into disrepute, particularly due to the new wave of American criminologists and positivism. Classical theory is however, still highly regarded, as it represented a remarkable humanitarian reform and provided fundamental rationale for many criminal codes of the western world (Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990). The Criminologist Cesare Beccaria is seen today as the father of classical criminology. Beccaria’s career began when he joined with two friends to form a club in which discussed topics of literary and social interest. Beccaria published a crit ical essay on administrative law, known as Dei deliti e delle pene (On Crimes and Punishments). It became an immediate success, however Beccaria initially remained anonymous, as the cost of criticizing the church and state could be harsh and brutal (Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990). His essay put forward the central principals of the classical school of criminology, which were â€Å"practically all of the important reforms in the administration of criminal justice† (Beccaria, 1767). Another well-known contributor to the theory of classicism was Jeremy Bentham, who was seen as a modern version of Beccaria (White, Haines, 1996). Bentham argued than humans are rational beings and thus implied that as humans, we all have free will. He believed that lawmaking should aim to achieve happiness for the majority of people under his idea of ‘utilitarianism’ (Moyer, 2001). The classical school represents the emergence of modern criminological thinking, dismissing earlier theor ies that crime was a supernatural phenomenon (Moyer, 2001). Classicism provides somewhat of a clear explanation to crime however, other factors should be considered when examining crime rather than simply individualistic actions, as sometimes we make choice because we have to- not because we want to. Classicism was soon out shadowed by the emergence of positivism, as science was introduced to the criminological explanations of crime. Biological positivism is based on the scientific understanding of crime and criminality and how factors and forces beyond the immediate control of the individual shape it. It assumes a biological distinction between the ‘normal’ and the ‘deviant’ (White and Haines, 1996). Cesare Lombroso who is generally acknowledged as the founder of positive criminology first popularized it, as he claimed that criminal and deviant individuals are the way they are due to their biological composition (Burke, 2001). Lombroso adopting a social Darwinian perspective, suggested that humans can be grouped at various levels of development (Moyer, 2001). He contended that certain characteristics were indicators of an atavistic person. An atavistic person is said to possess physical, psychic, or functional qualities of remote and more primitive ance stors (Moyer, 2001). He classified these individuals as ‘born criminals’ and hence came up with the theory; ‘the criminal is born, not made’ (white, Haines, 1996). Lombroso then divided criminals into four broad categories. The first category, born criminals, was distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics (Burke, 2001). The second and third categories included insane criminals as well as criminals or criminaloids. This included those who commit crimes in response to available opportunities. However, these categories also encompass traits that predispose them to criminal behavior (Burke, 2001). The final category, criminals of passion, is based on the premise that crime is motivated by anger, love or honor. Many criminologists today however, consider Lombroso’s approach to crime to be simplistic and naà ¯ve. This theory became unpalatable for many in the context of the mid-twentieth century instances of mass systematic extermination of certain groups based on, for example, ethnicity, sexuality or their health (Burke, 2001). Subsequently biological positivism does not provide a plausible or logical explanation of crime. Linked closely to biological positivism is psychological positivism. Psychological positivism is based on the understanding that the mind is responsible for acts of crime and criminality and thus we encounter the notion of the ‘criminal mind’ (Burke, 2001). However, as mentioned, there are three broad categories of psychological theories of crime. The first category: the psychodynamic theory; was popularized by the extremely influential work of Sigmund Freud. His assertion that â€Å"sexuality is present from birth and has a subsequent course of development is the fundamental basis of psychoanalysis† and one that has provoked much controversy (Burke, 2001). Freud proposed that personality is comprised of three separate components. The first section is the id, which are the primitive biological drives that underlie behavior (Maguire, Morgan, Reiner, 1997). The id is the â€Å"unconscious aspect of personality that leads the individual to seek self-gratificationâ⠂¬  (Brown, Esbensne, Geis, 1991). Secondly, the superego or ‘the conscious’, which operates in the unconscious, yet consists of values that are internalized through one’s early interactions, usually with their parents. The superego represents the moral and ethical standards of society (Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990). The third is the ego or the conscious personality. The ego is the mediating force that arbitrates between the pulls of the id and the superego. The ‘normal’ person was said to comprise these three components representing a â€Å"balanced conflict† (Burke, 2001). The second category: behavioral learning theories; originate from the works of criminologists Ivan. P. Pavlov and B.F. Skinner. Pavlov famously studied the process involved in simple, automatic animal behaviors, in particular salivation in the presence of food (Burke, 2001). Pavlov carried out a series of tests and found that responses that occur spontaneously to the nat ural (or unconditioned) stimulus, could be made to happen (conditioned) to a stimulus that was previously neutral. He focused on the process of turning on a light just before feeding the animal. Eventually the animal would salivate when the light comes on regardless of food being there or not. This process is called extinction (Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990). While Pavlov’s work concerned automatic behaviors occurring in response to stimuli, B.F Skinner extended the same principal to active learning. This involved the animal having to do something in order to obtain a reward or avoid a punishment (Burke, 2001). They found that learned behaviors are far more resistant to extinction if the reinforcement has only been used occasionally throughout learning (Burke, 2001). This theory makes sense, for example, if you put money into a ticket machine but don’t receive a ticket, you simply stop using the machine, whereas many people put money into gaming machines despite their slight chance of obtaining a prize (Burke, 2001). The third category: cognitive learning theory; has it’s foundations in a fundamental critique of the predestined actor model. Edward Tolman and Jean Piaget proposed, â€Å"by observing the responses that individuals make to different stimulus conditions, it is possible to draw inferences about the nature of the internal cognitive processes that produce those responses† (Brown, Esbensne, Geis, 1991). These psychologists emphasized the importance of the organizational process in perception, problem-solving and learning. From this they proposed that individuals were predisposed to organize information in particular ways (Maguire, Morgan, Reiner, 1997). However in recent years it has been acknowledged that criminals have some degree of choice. They can choose to imitate the behaviors of others or choose not to. There also may be a number of variable factors to influence this choice and hence, it can be concluded that crime is not inevitably destiny. Consequently, psychological positivism does not provide an adequate explanation of crime (Burke, 2001). The Sociological school has been extremely influential and is considered by many prominent criminologists today as the most logical, common sense, and, if partial explanation of crime and criminal behavior (Kohn, 2004). The sociological school essentially rejects the above individualist explanations of crime. It recognizes that crime is a socially constructed occurrence, however â€Å"acknowledges the threat it places on the continuance of the given society and thus needs to be controlled† (Freund, 1969). Emile Durkheim was known as the founding father of academic sociology in France and consequently extremely influential with sociological theories. Durkheim presented two central arguments to explain the growth of crime and criminal behavior (Burke, 2001). Firstly, he suggested that such societies encourage a state of unbridled ‘egoism’ that is different to â€Å"the maintenance of social solidarity and conformity to the law† (Burke, 2001). This describes p re-industrial types of society where individuals encompass similar or the same skills, beliefs, customs, religion or even work tasks (White, Haines, 1996). From this, certain patterns or trends could be acknowledged and noted. For example, Durkheim’s famous study of suicide demonstrated empirically that suicide rates vary depending whether or not the country is predominantly Catholic or Protestant. The point he made was that suicide could not be explained based on individualist actions or psychological factors, as it is a ‘social’ phenomenon (White, Haines, 1996). The second claim suggested the likelihood of inefficient regulation is greater at a time of rapid modernization. This is because new forms of control have not evolved sufficiently to replace the older, and now less appropriate, means of maintaining solidarity (Burke, 2001). However, Durkheim’s predecessor, Auguste Comte, is responsible for much of the work interpreted as his own. The two shared very similar views, however, the essential difference between the two was their differing views on human nature. Comte believed the human being has a natural and inherent desire to reach perfection whereas Durkheim rejects this view and proposes a ‘dualistic’ view of human nature. He proposed a duality between the needs of the body and the soul (White, Haines, 1996). The sociological school highlights aspects of offending which were clearly absent from psychological and classical theories. It acknowledges that the relationship between lack of opportunity, alienation and criminal behavior is more important in the current economic climate, as youth unemployment is high and the inequalities and divisions between the rich and the poor are continuing to grow (White, Haines, 1996). Rather than simply placing the entire burden on the criminal or their individualistic actions, the sociological school considers other factors, providing a coherent and logical explanation of crim e. The four schools of thought all provide differing explanations to crime. Classicism is based on the premise of free will and places entire responsibility on the criminal. Biological positivism differs in the sense that it places the responsibility on forces beyond control of the criminal and hence, suggests that the criminal is born, not made. Similarly psychological positivism puts emphasis on the mind as their explanation of crime as we encounter the ‘criminal mind’. However, the sociological school rejects individualist explanations of crime and considers social factors surrounding the criminal providing the most common sense explanation of crime. After examining the above theories it can be concluded that classicism, biological and psychological positivism are all heavily flawed to varying degrees and it is very difficult to establish any consistency within them. The sociological school or sociological positivism is minimally flawed and consequently provides a cohere nt, realistic, logical and the best explanation of crime. Reference List Beccaria, C. (1767) An essay on Crimes and Punishments, J. Almon, London Brown. S.E, F. Esbensne, G Geis, ‘Criminology- Explaining crime and its context’, Anderson, Ohio1991 Burke. R.H, ‘An introduction to Criminal Theory’, Willan, UK 2001 Freund, S. (1969) The sociology of max weber, vintage books, NY Gibbons, D. (1979) The Criminological Enterprise: Theories and Perspectives, Prentice Hall, New Jersey Gottfredson. M.R and T Hirschi, ‘A general theory of crime’, Stanford, California 1990 Kohn. M, ‘a reason for everything’, Faber, London 2004 Maguire. M, R Morgan, R Reiner, ‘The Oxford Handbook of criminology’, Oxford, Oxford 1997 Moyer. I, ‘Criminological Theories’, Sage, California 2001 White. R and F Haines, ‘Crime and Criminology’, Oxford, London 1996 Research Papers on Explanations For Crime.Capital PunishmentThree Concepts of PsychodynamicThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andUnreasonable Searches and SeizuresGenetic EngineeringAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of Self

It Took a While, but the Midget Raisin is No More

It Took a While, but the Midget Raisin is No More Responding to a petition first filed by the Little People of America in May 2103, the U.S. Department of Agriculture has agreed to remove â€Å"midget† from its list of size classifications for raisins.   In a new federal regulation proposed by the USDA’s Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) on August 13, the USDA would eliminate all five occurrences of the word â€Å"midget† from the â€Å"U.S. Standards for Grades of Processed Raisins.† The USDA had used â€Å"midget† to describe the smallest size of commercially processed raisins since WWII. ‘Small,’ Not ‘Midget’ â€Å"The action would clarify AMS grade standards by eliminating the use of the term ‘midget,’ while consistently using the term ‘small’ for raisins graded in that category,† states the USDA’s proposed rule. â€Å"The industry has used the two grade terms interchangeably for years. The proposed grade standards would be applied uniformly by all handlers.† The USDA acknowledged that the change was being made in response to the petition from the Little People of America (LPA), a non-profit advocacy group providing support and information to persons with a medical diagnosis of dwarfism or other form of short stature between 2’-8† and 4’-8† tall and their families. â€Å"On May 13, 2013, AMS received a petition from the Little People of America stating that they ‘are trying to raise awareness around and eliminate the use of the word midget,’† the USDA said. According to the USDA, the petition also stated that, â€Å"Though the use of the word midget by the USDA when classifying certain food products is benign, Little People of America, and the dwarfism community, hopes that the USDA would consider phasing out the term midget.† The Problem with ‘Midget’ The LPA considers the word â€Å"midget† to be â€Å"an antiquated slang term often used as slur toward shorter than average persons, specifically, â€Å"a person with a diagnosable skeletal dysplasia or medical condition,† according to the group’s Web site. In 2014, the LPA criticized Marvin Lewis, head coach of pro football’s Cincinnati Bengals for referring to Cleveland Browns quarterback Johnny Manziel as a â€Å"midget.† Manziel, while considered by some in the sport to be â€Å"short† for a pro football quarterback, is 6’-0† tall. â€Å"LPA has been actively working to get the word taken out of societys vernacular, where it is often used carelessly and without regard to who else it may affect,† states the LPA. Dwarfism is a recognized condition under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). In 2011, Startbucks Coffee agreed to pay $75,000 to settle an ADA-based disability discrimination lawsuit brought by the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) charging that the coffee retailing giant had unlawfully denied a reasonable accommodation to a barista with dwarfism at one of its El Paso stores and subsequently fired her because of her disability. How Tall is a Midget Raisin? Under USDA standards adopted in 1978, midget – now to be called â€Å"small† raisins are â€Å"95 percent, by weight, of all the raisins will pass through round perforations 24/64-inch in diameter, and not less than 70 percent, by weight, of all raisins will pass through round perforations 22/64-inch in diameter.† Size standards for commercially-processed raisins are set by the USDA’s Raisin Administrative Committee, which had already â€Å"approved the removal of the term midget from the standards† in 2014. When Will You Notice the Change? While you might already see â€Å"small† replacing â€Å"midget† on raisin packaging and advertising, the change will not become official for while. As required by law, the USDA must continue to accept public comments on the new regulation until October 20. At least a month later, the new regulation will be published in the Federal Register, making the change from â€Å"midget† to â€Å"small† official. Justice or ‘Political Correctness?’ Interestingly, the only two comments submitted on the rule change so far have come from people opposed to the growing demand for â€Å"political correctness.† â€Å"This is akin to killing fleas with a cannon,† wrote on commenter. â€Å"Certainly, there is a better use for workers at the USDA than to be checking under every rock for an offended person.† â€Å"Its a shame political correctness has come to censoring the federal government!† stated the other comment. â€Å"Eliminating 5 ‘midget’ mentions in the guidelines at expense of millions more ‘midget’ mentions on the interwebs is ridiculous!†

Explanations of Phyletic Gradualism and Punctuated Equilibrium Assignment

Explanations of Phyletic Gradualism and Punctuated Equilibrium - Assignment Example (A Dictionary of Ecology, 2004) According to this theory, new species crop up by the conversion of an inherited populace into its customized descendants. This transformation is steady and slow and engrosses huge numbers typically the whole ancestral inhabitants and their geographical series (Eldredge and Gould, 1972). Punctuated equilibrium In 1972, a new theory was anticipated by Eldredge and Gould to explicate the development of species. According to this hypothesis, evolution takes place in small rapid speciation disintegrations and the new species initiate in geological instants and persevere in stasis for extended period. There exists dissimilarity between phyletic gradualism and punctuated equilibrium because the former one states that uniformity prevails in the evolutionary process through slow and gradual transformation of large of complete pedigree. Sporadic record of fossil was the main issue discussed by this theory. The time interval for which specie subsists in a distinc tive appearance is long as compared to the time period in which transition occur from parent specie to its descendents. When a part of populace is segregated from the remaining population, then the smaller part of population undergoes particular deviations which are much slighter then the variations in the population left behind. The environmental factors like climate, the geological location and the reserves when combine with these variations, result in rapid evolution process. Moreover, rapid dispersion and evolution of descendent species from parent species can be resulted from considerable alteration in the daughter species. Few descendent species may be generated by the ancestral specie during its whole time span of life. Genetic homeostasis and gene stream from distant range are responsible for the periods of relative stasis because due to it large populations do not alter much (Elsberry, 1996). Several studies and researches have illustrated that concept of punctuated equilib rium supports long history of life on the planet. Prediction about fossil record by Punctuated equilibrium Punctuated equilibrium composes following predictions about fossil record: The geographic speciation of ancestral population along with environmental and biological diffusion would result in geographically unexpected emergence of the descendant species ubiquitously apart from the area where the evolutionary process took place. Due to this reason, it takes a long time to find the species which go through the splitting process. The pattern of fossil record consists of geographic and stratigraphic components. The intermediary fossils between ancestral species and its descendants for the peripatric speciation will be restricted in the geographic section. As the species transformation time period is petite therefore the geographic existence of fossil record will be concise (Elsberry, 1996). Evidences supporting the two theories The exposure of gradual evolution of taxa from one cate gory to a further one in fossil record supports phyletic gradualism theory which states that evolution occurs by gradual change. But this evidence of gradual evolution is restricted to limited number of taxa therefore, most of the studies and evidences support punctuated equilibrium hypothesis. Long periods of stasis along with rapid and small durations of morphological